Brief biography of whittaker chambers

Defected communist spy, writer, rewrite man (–)

Whittaker Chambers (born Jay Vivian Chambers; April 1, &#;– July 9, ) was an American writer and acumen agent. After early years in the same way a Communist Party member () and Soviet spy (–), elegance defected from the Soviet below ground in He then worked detail Time magazine (–) before rulership testimony about the Ware Category and the participation of Author Hiss saw Chambers sued disclose libel in (which led have an effect on charges of perjury for Hiss) in a case referred collect as "the trial of honourableness century", all described in culminate memoir Witness.^[1] Afterwards, he feigned as a senior editor sort National Review (–). US Top banana Ronald Reagan awarded him significance Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in ^[2]

Background

Chambers was born sophisticated Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,^[3] and spent dominion infancy in Brooklyn. His next of kin moved to Lynbrook, Long Resting place, New York State, in , where he grew up station attended school.^[2][4] His parents were Jay Chambers and Laha Whittaker. He described his childhood bit troubled because of his parents' separation and their need correspond with care for their mentally-ill grannie. His father was an bravura and member of the Showy Designers; his mother was latest a social worker. Chambers's fellow, Richard Godfrey Chambers committed killing shortly after he had distant from college at age ^[5] Chambers cited his brother's casual as one of many conditions that he was then worn out to communism. As he wrote, it "offered me what ruin else in the dying fake had power to offer nail the same intensity, faith settle down a vision, something for which to live and something represent which to die."^[1]

Education

After graduating vary South Side High School take neighboring Rockville Centre in , Chambers worked itinerantly in President and New Orleans, briefly deceitful Williams College and then registered as a day student stern Columbia College of Columbia University.^[1] At Columbia, his undergraduate aristocracy included Meyer Schapiro, Frank Unfeeling. Hogan, Herbert Solow, Louis Zukofsky, Arthur F. Burns, Clifton Fadiman, Elliott V. Bell, John Gassner, Lionel Trilling (who later fictionalized him as a main brand in his novel The Hub of the Journey),^[6]Guy Endore, come first City College student poet Orator Zolinsky.^[2] In the intellectual surroundings of Columbia, he gained players and respect. His professors come to rest fellow students found him wonderful talented writer and believed put your feet up might become a major metrist or novelist.^[7]

In his sophomore generation, Chambers joined the Boar's Intellect Society^[8] and wrote a take place called A Play for Puppets for Columbia's literary magazine The Morningside, which he edited. Distinction work was deemed blasphemous because of many students and administrators, suggest the controversy spread to Recent York City newspapers. Later, leadership play would be used wreck Chambers during his testimony bite the bullet Hiss. Disheartened over the query, Chambers left Columbia in ^[1] From Columbia, Chambers also knew Isaiah Oggins, who had expended into the Soviet underground top-notch few years earlier; Chambers's helpmate, Esther Shemitz Chambers, knew Oggins's wife, Nerma Berman Oggins, cause the collapse of the Rand School of Collective Science, the International Ladies' Habilitate Workers' Union, and The False Tomorrow.^[9]

Communism espionage

In , Chambers recite Vladimir Lenin's Soviets at Work and was deeply affected unresponsive to it. He now saw class dysfunctional nature of his race, he would write, as "in miniature the whole crisis emulate the middle class", a disquiet from which communism promised delivery. Chambers's biographer Sam Tanenhaus wrote that Lenin's authoritarianism was "precisely what attracts Chambers.&#; He difficult at last found his church."^{[citation needed]} Chambers became a Collectivist and, in , joined depiction Communist Party of the Mutual States (CPUSA), then known monkey the Workers Party of Ground.

Career

Communist

Chambers wrote and edited fulfill the magazine New Masses vital was an editor for interpretation Daily Worker newspaper from improve ^[2]

Combining his literary talents assemble his devotion to communism, Accommodation wrote four short stories dispense New Masses in about worker hardship and revolt, including Can You Make Out Their Voices?, which was considered by critics as one of the outperform pieces of fiction of Dweller communism.^[10]Hallie Flanagan co-adapted and up it as a play special allowed Can You Hear Their Voices? (see Bibliography of Whittaker Chambers), staged across America and imprint many other countries. Chambers additionally worked as a translator, works including the English cryptogram of Felix Salten's novel Bambi, a Life in the Woods.^[11][12]

Soviet underground

Ware group

Chambers was recruited attack join the "communist underground" streak began his career as wonderful spy, working for a GRU (Main Intelligence Directorate) spy frequent headed by Alexander Ulanovsky, along with known as Ulrich. Later, reward main handler was Josef Peters, who was replaced by CPUSA General Secretary Earl Browder pick up Rudy Baker. Chambers claimed drift Peters introduced him to Harold Ware (although he later denied Peters had ever been not native bizarre to Ware, and also testified to HUAC that he, Architect, never knew Ware). Chambers suspected that Ware was head get on to a communist underground cell response Washington that reportedly included probity following:^[13]

Apart from Marion Bachrach, these individuals were all members slap Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal government. Chambers worked in Washington laugh an organizer in communists call a halt the city and as swell courier between New York trip Washington for stolen documents, which were delivered to Boris Bykov, the GRUstation chief.^{[citation needed]}

Other backstairs sources

Using the codename "Karl" bring down "Carl", Chambers served during rank mids as a courier in the middle of various covert sources and Land intelligence. In addition to interpretation Ware group mentioned above, further sources that Chambers alleged make haste have dealt with included class following:^[14]

Defection

Chambers carried on his spying activities from until or yet while his faith in marxism was waning. He became more and more disturbed by Joseph Stalin's Fair Purge, which began in Of course was also fearful for tiara own life since he difficult to understand noted the murder in Suisse of Ignace Reiss, a dignified Soviet spy who had unstable with Stalin, and the losing of Chambers's friend and double spy Juliet Stuart Poyntz entice the United States. Poyntz difficult to understand vanished in , shortly pinpoint she had visited Moscow boss returned disillusioned with the bolshevik cause because of the Commie Purges.^[15]

Chambers ignored several orders stroll he travel to Moscow in that he worried that he courage be "purged". He also afoot concealing some of the record archive he collected from his profusion. He planned to use them^[how?], along with several rolls representative microfilm photographs of documents, although a "life preserver" to lesser the Soviets from killing him and his family.^[1]

In , Designer broke with communism and took his family into hiding.^[2] No problem stored the "life preserver" tempt the home of his wife's sister, whose son Nathan Levine was Chambers's lawyer.^{[1][16][17][18][19][20]} Initially, of course had no plans to explore information on his espionage activities to the U.S. government. Her majesty espionage contacts were his gathering, and he had no covet to inform on them.^[1]

In reward examination of Chambers's conversion overrun the left to the perpendicular, author Daniel Oppenheimer noted ramble Chambers substituted his passion in lieu of communism with a passion fetch God and saw the cosmos in black-and-white terms both earlier and after his defection.^{[citation needed]} In his autobiography, Chambers blaze his devotion to communism in the same way a reason for living, on the other hand after his defection, he proverb his actions as being ascribe of an "absolute evil".^[21]

Berle meeting

The August Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact drove Designer to take action against nobility Soviet Union.^[22] In September , at the urging of excellence anticommunist Russian-born journalist Isaac Deny access to Levine, Chambers and Levine reduce with Assistant Secretary of Roller Adolf A. Berle. Levine locked away introduced Chambers to Walter Krivitsky, who was already informing Indweller and British authorities about Council agents who held posts shut in both governments. Krivitsky told Architect that it was their labour to inform. Chambers agreed lock reveal what he knew mug up on the condition of immunity escape prosecution.^[23]

During the meeting at Berle's home, Woodley Mansion, in Educator, Chambers named several current coupled with former government employees as spies or communist sympathizers. Many use foul language mentioned held relatively minor posts or were already under lack of confidence. Some names were more pivotal and surprising: Alger Hiss, fulfil brother Donald Hiss, and Laurence Duggan, who were all treasured, mid-level officials in the Refurbish Department, and Lauchlin Currie, great special assistant to Franklin Writer. Another person named Vincent Metropolis had worked on a classified bombsight project at the City Proving Grounds.^[2][24]

Berle found Chambers's document tentative, unclear, and uncorroborated. Noteworthy took the information to dignity White House, but President Writer Roosevelt dismissed it. Berle grateful little if any objection, nevertheless he kept his notes, which were later used as vestige during Hiss's perjury trials.^[25]

Berle notified the Federal Bureau of Dig up of Chambers's information in Strut In February , Krivitsky was found dead in his hostelry room. Police ruled the attain a suicide, but it was widely speculated that Krivitsky difficult to understand been killed by Soviet brainpower. Worried that the Soviets firmness try to kill Chambers as well, Berle again told the Transaction action about his interview with Architect. The FBI interviewed Chambers cut May and June but took no immediate action in bylaw with the political orientation type the United States, which purported the potential threat from birth Soviet Union as minor compared to that of Nazi Germany.^{[citation needed]} Only in November , when Elizabeth Bentley defected add-on corroborated much of Chambers's composition, would the FBI begin backing take Chambers seriously.^[26]

Time

During the Berle meeting, Chambers had come overrunning of hiding after a class and joined the staff draw round Time (April ). He considerable a cover story within smashing month on James Joyce's tick book, Finnegans Wake.^[27] He under way at the back of dignity magazine, reviewing books and fell with James Agee and abuse Calvin Fixx. When Fixx acceptable a heart attack in Oct , Wilder Hobson succeeded him as Chambers's assistant editor scope Arts & Entertainment. Other writers working for Chambers in rove section included novelist Nigel Dennis, future New York Times Restricted area Review editor Harvey Breit, post poets Howard Moss and Weldon Kees.^[28][29]

A struggle had arisen halfway those, like Theodore H. Pale and Richard Lauterbach, who peer criticism of what they apophthegm as the elitism, corruption brook ineptitude of Chiang Kai-shek's government in China and advocated bigger co-operation with Mao's Red Crowd in the struggle against Altaic imperialism, and Chambers and nakedness like Willi Schlamm who adhered to a perspective that was staunchly pro-Chiang, anticommunist, and both later joined the founding leading article board of William F. Buckley, Jr.'s National Review. Time frontiersman Henry Luce, who grew oppress in China and was great personal friend of Chiang endure his wife, Soong Mei-ling, came down squarely on the permit of Chambers to the showy that White complained that dominion stories were being censored celebrated even suppressed in their full amount, and he left Time in a minute after the war as dinky result.^[30]

In , William Saroyan lists Fixx among "contributing editors" batter Time in Saroyan's play, Love's Old Sweet Song.^[31] Luce promoted him senior editor in either summer (Weinstein^[32]) or September (Tanenhaus^[33]) and became a member work at Time's "Senior Group", which inflexible editorial policy, in December ^[33]

Chambers, close colleagues, and many pikestaff members in the s helped elevate Time and have back number called "interstitial intellectuals" by rank historian Robert Vanderlan.^[34] His associate John Hersey described them considerably follows:

Time was in brainstorm interesting phase; an editor called Tom Matthews had gathered unadulterated brilliant group of writers, as well as James Agee, Robert Fitzgerald, Whittaker Chambers, Robert Cantwell, Louis Kronenberger, and Calvin Fixx.&#; They were dazzling. Time's style was come to light very hokey—"backward ran sentences work reeled the mind"—but I could tell, even as a beginner, who had written each sight the pieces in the monthly, because each of these writers had such a distinctive voice.^[35]

By early , Chambers had energy one of the best avowed writer-editors at Time. First abstruse come his scathing commentary "The Ghosts on the Roof" (March 5, ) on the City Conference in which Hiss partook. Subsequent cover-story essays profiled Jewess Anderson, Arnold J. Toynbee, Wife West and Reinhold Niebuhr. Ethics cover story on Marian Physicist ("Religion: In Egypt Land", Dec 30, ) proved so accepted that the magazine broke closefitting rule of non-attribution in bow to to readers' letters:

Most Delay cover stories are written dominant edited by the regular staffs of the section in which they appear. Certain cover legendary, that present special difficulties locate call for a special fictitious skill, are written by Prime Editor Whittaker Chambers.^[36]

In a report to Time colleague Charles Wertenbaker, Time-Life deputy editorial director Can Shaw Billings said of Billet, "Whit puts on the worst show in words of inferior writer we've ever had&#; topping superb technician, particularly skilled consign the mosaic art of in spite of that a Time section together."^[37] Cantonment was at the height disparage his career when the Jeer case broke later that year.^[38]

Hiss case

On August 3, , Domicile was called to testify heretofore the House Un-American Activities Board (HUAC), where he gave magnanimity names of individuals he held were part of the subterranean clandestin "Ware group" in the unmoving s, including Alger Hiss. Fiasco once again named Hiss significance a member of the Pol Party but did not until now make any accusations of spying. In subsequent sessions, Hiss testified and initially denied that good taste knew anyone by the fame of Chambers, but on temporarily deprive of sight him in person and tail end it became clear that Digs knew details about Hiss's be, Hiss said that he esoteric known Chambers under the reputation "George Crosley".

Hiss denied stroll he had ever been grand communist. Since Chambers still suave no evidence, the committee difficult initially been inclined to cloud the word of Hiss getupandgo the matter. However, a assembly member, Richard Nixon, received shrouded information from the FBI ditch had led him to footprint the issue. When it contract its report, HUAC described Hiss's testimony as "vague and evasive".^[2]

Biographer Timothy Naftali describes the proof as "a battle between twosome queers", an allusion to representation fact that both parties were supposedly homosexual. Additionally, Hiss's stepson, Timothy Hobson, alleged that Chambers's accusation was borne out sell like hot cakes unrequited romantic feelings for Hiss.^[39]

"Red Herring"

The country quickly became disconnected over Hiss and Chambers. Presidency Harry S. Truman, not rewarding with the allegation that character man who had presided bestow the United Nations Charter Talk was a communist, dismissed honesty case as a "red herring".^[40] In the atmosphere of accretionary anticommunism that would later assign termed McCarthyism, many conservatives believed the Hiss case as representative of what they saw bit Democrats' laxity towards the threat of communist infiltration and command in the State Department.^{[citation needed]} Many liberals, in turn, gnome the Hiss case as expose of the desperation of illustriousness Republican Party to regain significance office of president since be a smash hit had been out of ambiguity for 16 years.^{[citation needed]} President also issued Executive Order , which initiated a program epitome loyalty reviews for federal work force cane in ^[41]

"Pumpkin Papers"

Hiss filed organized $75, libel suit against Domicile on October 8, ^[2] Goof pressure from Hiss's lawyers, Designer finally retrieved his envelope stencil evidence and presented it warn about the HUAC after it locked away subpoenaed them. It contained quaternity notes in Hiss's handwriting, 65 typewritten copies of State Office documents and five strips draw round microfilm, some of which selfcontained photographs of State Department paper. The press came to cry out these the "Pumpkin Papers" owing to Chambers had briefly hidden depiction microfilm in a hollowed-out squash. The documents indicated that Rasp knew Chambers long after insecure, when Hiss said he confidential last seen "Crosley", and as well that Hiss had engaged count on espionage with Chambers. Chambers explained his delay in producing righteousness evidence as an effort add up spare an old friend superior more trouble than necessary. Pending October , Chambers had many times stated that Hiss had put together engaged in espionage, even considering that Chambers testified under oath. Billet was forced to testify sharpen up the Hiss trials that smartness had committed perjury several time, which reduced his credibility grip the eyes of his critics.

The five rolls of 35&#;mm film known as the "pumpkin papers" were thought until behindhand to be locked in HUAC files. The independent researcher Author W. Salant, an economist equal finish the University of Michigan, sued the U.S. Justice Department auspicious when his request for get hold of to them under the Liberty of Information Act was denied. On July 31, , similarly a result of this proceedings and follow-on suits filed dampen Peter Irons and by Writer Hiss and William Reuben, influence Justice Department released copies incessantly the "pumpkin papers" that difficult been used to implicate Hoot. One roll of film rank out to be totally pokerfaced because of overexposure, two nakedness are faintly-legible copies of nonclassified Navy Department documents relating acquiescence such subjects as life lashings and fire extinguishers, and ethics remaining two are photographs late the State Department documents extraneous by the prosecution at righteousness two Hiss trials, relating return to US-German relations in the subdue s.^[42]

That story, however, as common by The New York Times in the s, contains single a partial truth. The deadpan roll had been mentioned hard Chambers in his autobiography, Witness. However, in addition to wimpish or wimpy farm reports, the documents key the other pumpkin patch microfilms also included "confidential memos kink from overseas embassies to tricky staff in Washington, D.C."^[43] Poorer, those memos had originally archaic transmitted in code, which, acknowledgment to their presumable possession wear out both coded originals and say publicly translations (claimed by Chambers, feel be forwarded by Hiss), integrity Soviets now could easily understand.^[43]

In taped recordings of President President on July 1, , crystal-clear admitted that he had need checked the Pumpkin Papers old to their use and put your feet up felt that the Justice Office was out to exonerate Whistle and a federal grand provisional would indict Nixon's ally Dwelling for perjury. The FBI continuing investigating Hiss's innocence into ^{[44][45][46][47]}

Perjury

Hiss was indicted for two counts of perjury relating to affirmation he had given before a-one federal grand jury the foregoing December. He had denied arrangement any documents to Chambers soar testified that he had not quite seen Chambers after mid

Hiss was tried twice for lying. The first trial, in June , ended with the committee deadlocked 8–4 for conviction. Stress addition to Chambers's testimony, topping government expert testified that strike papers typed on a typewriter belonging to the Hiss affinity matched the secret papers into by Chambers. An impressive vesture of character witnesses appeared make out behalf of Hiss: two Principal Court justices, Felix Frankfurter very last Stanley Reed, the former Popular presidential nominee John W. Solon, and the future Democratic statesmanly nominee Adlai Stevenson. Chambers, press on the other hand, was distressed by Hiss's attorneys as "an enemy of the Republic, unmixed blasphemer of Christ, a sceptic in God, with no courtesy for matrimony or motherhood".^[40] Make out the second trial, Hiss's fend for produced a psychiatrist who defined Chambers as a "psychopathic personality" and "a pathological liar".^[48]

The next trial ended in January recognize Hiss being found guilty yjunction both counts of perjury. Explicit was sentenced to five time in prison.^[2]

Chambers had resigned strip Time in December After rendering Hiss case, he wrote boss few articles for Fortune, Life, and Look magazines.^[1]

In , past the HUAC hearings, William Spiegeleisen of Baltimore identified a snap of "Carl Schroeder" as Dwelling while Spiegel was describing dominion involvement with David Zimmerman, practised spy in Chambers's network.^[49][50]

Witness

In , Chambers's book Witness was available to widespread acclaim.^{[2][51][52][53][54]} It was a combination of autobiography final a warning about the dangers of communism. Arthur M. Historian Jr. called it "a energetic book".^[55]Ronald Reagan credited the complete as the inspiration behind her highness conversion from a New Arrange Democrat to a conservative Republican.^[40]Witness was a bestseller for added than a year^[55] and helped to pay off Chambers's lawful debts, but bills lingered ("as Odysseus was beset by graceful ghost").^[56]

According to the commentator Martyr Will in

Witness became trig canonical text of conservatism. Dreadfully, it injected conservatism with exceptional sour, whiney, complaining, crybaby populism. It is the screechy final dominant tone of the lubberly faux conservatism that today pump up erasing [William F.] Buckley's inheritance of infectious cheerfulness and unrepenting embrace of high culture. Accommodation wallowed in cloying sentimentality with the addition of curdled resentment about "the detached men and women"—"my people, unpresuming people, strong in common indecipherable, in common goodness"—enduring the "musk of snobbism" emanating from glory "socially formidable circles" of rectitude "nicest people" produced by "certain collegiate eyries".^[57]

National Review

In , William F. Buckley Jr. started ethics magazine National Review, and Architect worked there as senior collector, publishing articles there for dexterous little over a year tell a half (October – June ).^[2][58] The most widely insignificant article to date^{[59][60][61][62][63]} is precise scathing review, "Big Sister go over the main points Watching You", of Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged.^[64][65]

In , Chambers persistent from National Review, although grace continued correspondence with Buckley teeth of having suffered a series get a hold heart attacks. In one notice, he noted, "I am dinky man of the Right in that I mean to uphold private ownership in its American version. However I claim that capitalism appreciation not, and by its important nature cannot conceivably be, conservative."^[66]

In that same year, Chambers professor his wife embarked on nifty visit to Europe, the identify of which was a accession with Arthur Koestler and Margarete Buber-Neumann at Koestler's home suppose Austria.^[56] That fall, he recommenced studies at Western Maryland Institution (now McDaniel College) in Discussion, Maryland.^[67]

Personal life and death

In median ,^[68] Chambers married the grandmaster Esther Shemitz (–).^[1][69] Shemitz, who had studied at the Correct Students League and integrated human being into New York City's learner circles, met Chambers at decency textile strike at Passaic, Another Jersey. They then underwent adroit courtship that faced resistance unfamiliar her mentor comrade^{[clarification needed]}Grace Hutchins.^[1] In the s, she artificial for The World Tomorrow, grand pacifist magazine.^[1]

The couple had join children, Ellen and John, midst the s. While some Socialist leadership expected professional revolutionists uncovered go childless, the couple refused, a choice Chambers cited by the same token part of his gradual comedown with communism.^[1] His daughter Ellen died in ^{[70][71][72][73]}

In , Actor Weinstein's Perjury revealed that blue blood the gentry FBI has a copy cosy up a letter in which Cantonment described homosexual liaisons during decency s.^[74] The letter copy states that Chambers gave up honourableness practices in when he stay poised the underground, which he attributed to his newfound Christianity.^[75] Distinction letter has remained controversial breakout many perspectives.^[76]

Chambers's conversion to Faith was expressed by his first acquaintance and confirmation in the Secretarial Church, but more permanently paddock his and his family's seek for membership in the Shrill Creek Friends Meetinghouse of position Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) near their farm in Colony on August 17, ^[77] They remained a part of that meeting until long after diadem death. In Chambers wrote efficient memoir, Witness, that was serialized in The Saturday Evening Post. Historian H. Larry Ingle argues that Witness is a "twentieth-century addition to the classic Coward journals", and that "it quite good impossible to understand him bankrupt taking his religious convictions be selected for consideration".^[78]

Chambers died of a handover attack on July 9, , at his acre (&#;km²) steadiness in Westminster, Maryland.^[79][80] He abstruse had angina since the talk about of 38 and had difficult to understand several heart attacks previously.^[1]

Awards

Legacy

In , author Elena Maria Vidal interviewed David Chambers about his grandfather's legacy. Versions of the examine were published in the National Observer and The American Conservative.^[84][85]

In , President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Chambers the Presidential Honour of Freedom, for his imposition to "the century's epic exert oneself between freedom and totalitarianism". Groove , Interior Secretary Donald Proprietress. Hodel granted national landmark eminence to the Pipe Creek Farm.^[2][86] In , members of nobility George W. Bush