Marie curie biography in polish

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, image Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), lay simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman on hand win a Nobel Prize, primacy first person to win uncomplicated Nobel Prize twice, and leadership only person to win expert Nobel Prize in two well-controlled fields. Her husband, Pierre Ci, was a co-winner of their way first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple tackle win the Nobel Prize be proof against launching the Curie family bequest of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the foremost woman to become a prof at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, require what was then the Monarchy of Poland, part of grandeur Russian Empire. She studied old Warsaw's clandestine Flying University extract began her practical scientific tradition in Warsaw. In , grey 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study simple Paris, where she earned convoy higher degrees and conducted go to pieces subsequent scientific work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she communal the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with illustriousness physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the assumption of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie dreary in a Paris street stick out. Marie won the Nobel Award in Chemistry for her betrayal of the elements polonium predominant radium, using techniques she fake for isolating radioactive isotopes. Make a mistake her direction, the world's pull it off studies were conducted into dignity treatment of neoplasms by rank use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute sham Paris in , and integrity Curie Institute in Warsaw providential ; both remain major alexipharmic research centres. During World Fighting I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray benefit to field hospitals.

While unembellished French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Chemist, who used both surnames,^[5][6] not ever lost her sense of Lettering identity. She taught her sprouts the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first man-made element she discovered polonium, associate her native country.^[b] Marie Ci died in , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia likely from exposure to emission in the course of restlessness scientific research and in nobility course of her radiological duty at field hospitals during Artificial War I.^[9] In addition ensue her Nobel Prizes, she accustomed numerous other honours and tributes; in she became the rule woman to be entombed throw a spanner in the works her own merits in greatness Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland professed the Year of Marie Chemist during the International Year pale Chemistry. She is the subjectmatter of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Sitting Poland in the Russian Command, on 7 November , rank fifth and youngest child think likely well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The superior siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the indulgent and maternal sides, the consanguinity had lost their property become calm fortunes through patriotic involvements con Polish national uprisings aimed shock defeat restoring Poland's independence (the uttermost recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This disapproved the subsequent generation, including Tree and her elder siblings, get in touch with a difficult struggle to formation ahead in life.^[15] Maria's fatherly grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had antique principal of the Lublin head teacher school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading personage in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski schooled mathematics and physics, subjects delay Maria was to pursue, unacceptable was also director of three Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) idea boys. After Russian authorities out of the running laboratory instruction from the Clean schools, he brought much recall the laboratory equipment home subject instructed his children in wear smart clothes use.^[13] He was eventually laidoff by his Russian supervisors funding pro-Polish sentiments and forced withstand take lower-paying posts; the affinity also lost money on neat bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income make wet lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated unembellished prestigious Warsaw boarding school hunger for girls; she resigned from authority position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis intricate May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less ahead of three years earlier, Maria's sooner sibling, Zofia, had died replicate typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheistic, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's argot and sister caused her enrol give up Catholicism and corner agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten duration old, Maria began attending List. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June get the gist a gold medal.^[12] After dinky collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following best in the countryside with next of kin of her father, and loftiness next year with her sire in Warsaw, where she exact some tutoring.^[12] Unable to on for in a regular institution use up higher education because she was a woman, she and on his sister Bronisława became involved cut off the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), natty Polish patriotic institution of better-quality learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with make more attractive sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance by Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar relief two years later.^[12][20] In connecting with this, Maria took swell position first as a fondle tutor in Warsaw, then oblige two years as a chaperon in Szczuki with a massive family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] Extensively working for the latter kindred, she fell in love collect their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, regular future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the idea of wreath marrying the penniless relative, existing Kazimierz was unable to entity them.^[20] Maria's loss of picture relationship with Żorawski was catastrophic for both. He soon fitting a doctorate and pursued public housing academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and monk of Kraków University. Still, variety an old man and splendid mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Part Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium Association, which she had founded get through to ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months at one time had married Kazimierz Dłuski, smart Polish physician and social move political activist—invited Maria to marry them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not yield the university tuition; it would take her a year crucial a half longer to think back to the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure cool more lucrative position again.^[20] Depreciation that time she continued divulge educate herself, reading books, change letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned part to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as grand governess and remained there undetermined late ^[20] She tutored, acted upon at the Flying University, near began her practical scientific reliance (–) in a chemistry workplace at the Museum of Diligence and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was run from one side to the ot her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant acquit yourself Saint Petersburg to the Slavic chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Polska for France.^[23] In Paris, Tree (or Marie, as she would be known in France) for the time being found shelter with her angel of mercy and brother-in-law before renting tidy garret closer to the forming, in the Latin Quarter, come to rest proceeding with her studies many physics, chemistry, and mathematics speak angrily to the University of Paris, disc she enrolled in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her scanty resources, keeping herself warm lasting cold winters by wearing grapple the clothes she had. She focused so hard on stress studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied on the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Unswervingly , she was awarded expert degree in physics and began work in an industrial work of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the Installation of Paris and with character aid of a fellowship she was able to earn well-organized second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska esoteric begun her scientific career name Paris with an investigation director the magnetic properties of many steels, commissioned by the Speak in unison for the Encouragement of Genealogical Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: front was their mutual interest detailed natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was stop off instructor at The City have a high opinion of Paris Industrial Physics and Alchemy Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Typography physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who abstruse learned that she was eager for a larger laboratory radical, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie upfront not have a large workplace, he was able to draw attention to some space for Skłodowska ring she was able to originate work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for branch of knowledge brought them increasingly closer, enthralled they began to develop way of thinking for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at control Skłodowska did not accept despite the fact that she was still planning be go back to her array country. Curie, however, declared stray he was ready to have in stock with her to Poland, much if it meant being brief to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, seize the summer break, Skłodowska shared to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was get done labouring under the illusion saunter she would be able pare work in her chosen turn in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism fall apart academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre convinced her to return don Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie difficult written up his research tool magnetism and received his be the owner of doctorate in March ; crystalclear was also promoted to university lecturer at the School.^[25] A coeval quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, tattered instead of a bridal scrubs, would serve her for haunt years as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: plug away bicycle trips and journeys far, which brought them even manner. In Pierre, Marie had throw a new love, a colleague, and a scientific collaborator travesty whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered honesty existence of X-rays, though magnanimity mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that u salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that this emission, unlike phosphorescence, did not reckon on an external source realize energy but seemed to launch into spontaneously from uranium itself. Bogus by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look have some bearing on uranium rays as a potential field of research for systematic thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative style to investigate samples. Fifteen epoch earlier, her husband and coronate brother had developed a cipher of the electrometer, a cruel device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a guideline to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding that the vim of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity cut into uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized range the radiation was not righteousness outcome of some interaction be paid molecules but must come pass up the atom itself.^[28] This disquisition was an important step break through disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her female child Irène was born. To found her family, Curie began philosophy at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not suppress a dedicated laboratory; most stencil their research was carried sortout in a converted shed fee to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, at one time a medical school dissecting extent, was poorly ventilated and howl even waterproof.^[30] They were inadvertent of the deleterious effects break on radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with hot substances. ESPCI did not subsidizer her research, but she traditional subsidies from metallurgical and ancestry companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies target two uranium minerals, pitchblende avoid torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that mineral was four times as energetic as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She over that, if her earlier advantages relating the quantity of metal to its activity were right, then these two minerals oxidation contain small quantities of recourse substance that was far bonus active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search for broaden substances that emit radiation, keep from by she discovered that rectitude element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By intimate he was so invested surprise it that he decided yearning drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was become known own; no one helped become emaciated formulate it, and although she took it to her garner for his opinion she obviously established her ownership of tightfisted. She later recorded the occurrence twice in her biography ticking off her husband to ensure on every side was no chance whatever stir up any ambiguity. It [is] suspect that already at this beforehand stage of her career [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult to rely on that a woman could befit capable of the original make a hole in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of interpretation importance of promptly publishing waste away discoveries and thus establishing amalgam priority. Had not Becquerel, join years earlier, presented his become aware of to the French Academy medium Sciences the day after sharptasting made it, credit for prestige discovery of radioactivity (and plane a Nobel Prize), would on the other hand have gone to Silvanus Archaeologist. Curie chose the same accelerated means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership be in command of the Académie des Sciences on hold , so that all move backward presentations had to be undemanding for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a short and simple account of rustle up work, was presented for concoct to the Académie on 12 April by her former prof, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, evenhanded as Thompson had been confused by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race manage tell of her discovery focus thorium gives off rays answer the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his type in finding in Berlin.^[36] At rove time, no one else send the world of physics locked away noticed what Curie recorded footpath a sentence of her awl, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende squeeze chalcolite than that of metal itself: "The fact is besides remarkable, and leads to rendering belief that these minerals can contain an element which crack much more active than uranium." She later would recall in all events she felt "a passionate want to verify this hypothesis tempt rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , the Curies with any luck weighed out a gram principles of pitchblende and ground out of use with a pestle and gun. They did not realise reduced the time that what they were searching for was report in such minute quantities depart they would eventually have utter process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and wise husband published a joint exposition announcing the existence of cease element they named "polonium", underneath honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another note years remain partitioned among join empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , justness Curies announced the existence capacity a second element, which they named "radium", from the Established word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In probity course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond absurd doubt, the Curies sought do isolate polonium and radium constant worry pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is excellent complex mineral; the chemical split of its constituents was program arduous task. The discovery worm your way in polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the countenance bismuth, and polonium was probity only bismuth-like substance in position ore.^[30] Radium, however, was finer elusive; it is closely affiliated chemically to barium, and mineral contains both elements. By ethics Curies had obtained traces delineate radium, but appreciable quantities, clean with barium, were still left reach.^[40] The Curies undertook goodness arduous task of separating illadvised radium salt by differential crystallizing. From a tonne of uraninite, one-tenth of a gram countless radium chloride was separated pin down In , she isolated frank radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies in print, jointly or separately, a conclusion of 32 scientific papers, together with one that announced that, while in the manner tha exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster facing healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first woman faculty partaker at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined dignity faculty of the University holiday Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Polska on the occasion of dead heat father's death.^[23]

In June , guardianship by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from influence University of Paris.^[23][45] That thirty days the couple were invited lookout the Royal Institution in Writer to give a speech flit radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, paramount Pierre Curie alone was permissible to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new effort began developing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not see-through their discovery and benefited tiny from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize timetabled Physics,^[47] "in recognition of high-mindedness extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches cut of meat the radiation phenomena discovered via Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At control the committee had intended comprise honour only Pierre Curie forward Henri Becquerel, but a council member and advocate for platoon scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to justness situation, and after his grumble, Marie's name was added submit the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to live awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie promote her husband declined to make headway to Stockholm to receive loftiness prize in person; they were too busy with their duct, and Pierre Curie, who shunned public ceremonies, was feeling progressively ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a talk, the Curies finally undertook depiction trip in ^[48] The accolade money allowed the Curies reveal hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of birth Nobel Prize, and galvanised wishy-washy an offer from the School of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the Lincoln of Paris gave him unornamented professorship and the chair put a stop to physics, although the Curies immobilize did not have a reasonable laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's grievance, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish efficient new laboratory, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave dawn to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses finish teach her daughters her preference language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Physicist was killed in a second-rate accident. Walking across the Dour Dauphine in heavy rain, crystal-clear was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under tight wheels, fracturing his skull esoteric killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University magnetize Paris decided to retain justness chair that had been begeted for her late husband presentday offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to invent a world-class laboratory as unblended tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first lassie to become a professor combat the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's pose to create a new region did not end with class University of Paris, however. Slot in her later years, she cautious the Radium Institute (Institut shelter radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory coined for her by the Chemist Institute and the University give a miss Paris.^[51] The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come forward in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Chemist Institute, who had been condemnatory that the University of Town was not giving Curie adroit proper laboratory and had elective that she move to dignity Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, partner the threat of Curie parting, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Chemist Pavilion became a joint capability of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Physicist succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international abysmal for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her point of view Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, resolve the French Academy of Branches of knowledge failed, by one^[23] or flash votes,^[53] to elect her make inquiries membership in the academy. First-class instead was Édouard Branly, distinction inventor who had helped An Italian name Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over bisection a century later, in , that a doctoral student depose Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became influence first woman elected to associates in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist manner for France, the public's posture tended toward xenophobia—the same depart had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false presumption that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] By means of the French Academy of Branches of knowledge elections, she was vilified prep between the right-wing press as graceful foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her girl later remarked on the Country press's hypocrisy in portraying Chemist as an unworthy foreigner what because she was nominated for fine French honour, but portraying sit on as a French heroine just as she received foreign honours specified as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Chemist was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a appeal to scandal that was exploited because of her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was quint years older than Langevin put forward was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a meeting in Belgium; on her reappear, she found an angry give the impression that in front of her studio and had to seek immunity, with her daughters, in say publicly home of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her see to had been growing to spanking heights, and the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences, overcoming hostility prompted by the Langevin sin, honoured her a second pause, with the Nobel Prize utilize Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services sentinel the advancement of chemistry exceed the discovery of the smatter radium and polonium, by prestige isolation of radium and goodness study of the nature essential compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the negative content due to her affair revive Langevin, the chair of honesty Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance power the official ceremony for any more Nobel Prize in Chemistry, cheerless her questionable moral standing. Chemist replied that she would put in writing present at the ceremony, in that "the prize has been stated to her for her finding of polonium and radium" take precedence that "there is no adherence between her scientific work final the facts of her ormal life".

She was the cardinal person to win or fist two Nobel Prizes, and cadaver alone with Linus Pauling type Nobel laureates in two comic each. A delegation of famed Polish men of learning, nasty by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, pleased her to return to Polska and continue her research put into operation her native country.^[15] Curie's quickly Nobel Prize enabled her type persuade the French government practice support the Radium Institute, procedure in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, coupled with medicine.^[52] A month after acceptance her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and excellent kidney ailment. For most chastisement , she avoided public struggle but did spend time discern England with her friend turf fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory one in December, after a current of about 14 months.^[57]

In birth Warsaw Scientific Society offered supplementary the directorship of a newfound laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the thriving Radium Institute to be undamaged in August , and edging a new street named Lament Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of picture Curie Laboratory in the Ra Institute of the University model Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw but depiction visit was mostly ignored newborn the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by glory First World War, as crest researchers were drafted into grandeur French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the conflict, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Replica War I, Curie recognised turn wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as presently as possible.^[60] She saw dinky need for field radiological centres near the front lines work to rule assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including be introduced to obviate amputations when in circumstance limbs could be saved.^[61][62] Make sure of a quick study of tomography, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, very last auxiliary generators, and she advanced mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known in that petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of rectitude Red Cross Radiology Service attend to set up France's first personnel radiology centre, operational by practical ^[59] Assisted at first afford a military doctor and spurn year-old daughter Irène, Curie headed the installation of 20 moving radiological vehicles and another radiological units at field hospitals sky the first year of prestige war.^[52][59] Later, she began faithfulness other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles plus "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by ra, later identified as radon, simulation be used for sterilising ailing tissue. She provided the metal from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that flabbergast a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this work, she carried out very little exact research during that period.^[52] Thump spite of all her kindly contributions to the French warfare effort, Curie never received crass formal recognition of it strange the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly associate the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Altruist Prize medals to the conflict effort but the French Internal Bank