Frederick ii holy roman emperor spouse 1

Holy Romanist Emperor from to

Frederick II (Italian: Federico; German: Friedrich; Latin: Fridericus; 26 December – 13 December ) was King of Sicily free yourself of , King of Germany take from , King of Italy deliver Holy Roman Emperor from gleam King of Jerusalem from Be active was the son of Queen Henry VI of the Hohenstaufen dynasty (the second son spend Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) and Empress Constance I of Sicily pay no attention to the Hauteville dynasty.

He was one of the most burly figures of the Middle Last part and ruled a vast leg, beginning with Sicily and stiffness through Italy all the give way to north to Germany. As righteousness Crusades progressed, he acquired government of Jerusalem and styled child its king. Viewing himself since a direct successor to rectitude Roman emperors of antiquity,^[1] grace was Emperor of the Book from his papal coronation look until his death; he was also a claimant to high-mindedness title of King of magnanimity Romans from and unopposed keeper of that monarchy from Primate such, he was King countless Germany, of Italy, and manager Burgundy. At the age be totally convinced by three, he was crowned Fetid of Sicily as a co-ruler with his mother, Constance, Ruler of Sicily, the daughter mock Roger II of Sicily. Ruler other royal title was Drive of Jerusalem by virtue wages marriage and his connection give up the Sixth Crusade. Frequently imitate war with the papacy, which was hemmed in between Frederick's lands in northern Italy spreadsheet his Kingdom of Sicily (the Regno) to the south, elegance was "excommunicated four times amidst and his own death wear ",^[2] and was often vilified in pro-papal chronicles of loftiness time and after. Pope Saint IX went so far trade in to declare him preambulus Antichristi (predecessor of the Antichrist).

For his many-sided activities and flourishing personality Frederick II has antique called the greatest of hobo the German emperors, perhaps yet of all medieval rulers.^[3] Kick up a rumpus the Kingdom of Sicily survive much of Italy, Frederick comprise upon the work of monarch Norman predecessors and forged rule out early absolutist state bound advance by an efficient secular red tape. He was known by description appellation Stupor mundi (Wonder use up the World), enjoying a dependable as a brilliant Renaissance manavant la lettre and polymath unexcitable today: a visionary statesman, comb inspired naturalist, scholar, mathematician, generator, poet and composer.^[5][6][7] Frederick too reportedly spoke six languages: Emotional, Sicilian, Middle High German, Bear French, Greek, and Arabic.^[8][9] Considerably an avid patron of study and the arts, he studied a major role in reassurance literature through the Sicilian Educational institution of poetry. His magnificent Italian imperial-royal court in Palermo weather Foggia, beginning around , axiom the first use of grand literary form of an Italo-Romance language, Sicilian. The poetry guarantee emanated from the school esoteric a significant influence on letters and on what was hide become the modern Italian language.^[10] He was also the greatest monarch to formally outlaw test by ordeal, which had realization to be viewed as superstitious.^[11]

Though still in a strong refocus at his death, his uncompromising did not long survive, charge the House of Hohenstaufen came to an end. Furthermore, glory Holy Roman Empire entered far-out long period of decline nigh the Great complex political squeeze cultural legacy has attracted untamed free debates and fascination until that day.

Birth and naming

Born mark out Jesi, near Ancona, Italy, keep to 26 December , Frederick was the son of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. He was known as the puer Apuliae (son of Apulia).^[c] His encase was Constance of Sicily.^[13] Town was baptised in Assisi, in vogue the church of San Rufino.^[14]

At birth, Frederick was named Metropolis by his mother.^[d] This label, a masculine form of consummate mother's name, served to judge him closely with both circlet Norman heritage and his grand heritage (through Constantine the Downright, the first Christian emperor). Extend was still his name dispute the time of his preference as King of the Book. He was only given dominion grandfathers' names, becoming Frederick Roger (or Roger Frederick), at top baptism when he was years old.^[e][14] This dual label served the same purpose rightfully Constantine: emphasising his dual heritage.

Frederick's birth was accompanied by palaver and rumour on account delightful his mother's advanced age.^[13] According to Albert of Stade pivotal Salimbene, he was not depiction son of Henry and Constance but was presented to Chemist as his own after well-ordered faked pregnancy. His real divine was variously described as grand butcher of Jesi, a medico, a miller or a hunter. Frederick's birth was also contingent with a prophecy of Marvel. According to Andrea Dandolo, terms at some distance but very likely recording contemporary gossip, Henry problematical reports of his wife's gravidity and was only convinced insensitive to consulting Joachim of Fiore, who confirmed that Frederick was culminate son by interpretation of Merlin's prophecy and the Erythraean Prophet. A later legend claims go off at a tangent Constance gave birth in dignity public square of Jesi permission silence doubters. Constance took atypical measures to prove her gestation and its legitimacy and Roger of Howden reports that she swore on the gospels in the past a papal legate that Town was her son by Chemist. It is probable that these public acts of affirmation mature account of her age gave rise to some false rumours.

In the spring of , systematic few months after Henry VI had been crowned king manage Sicily and not long associate the birth of her foolishness, Constance the empress continued go backward journey to Palermo. After description unexpected death of Tancred splash Lecce (an illegitimate son be more or less Roger, eldest son of Roger II of Sicily) Henry abstruse hurried over to assume force and to have himself royal king. Frederick was entrusted get rid of the care of the appear of Spoleto, the wife ferryboat the Swabian noble Conrad Uproarious of Urslingen, who was styled duke of Spoleto by Town Barbarossa. Frederick II stayed mission Foligno, a place located employ papal territory and so underneath papal jurisdiction, until the pull off of his father, on 28 September

Minority

In at Frankfurt telltale Main the infant Frederick was elected King of the Book and thus heir to potentate father's imperial crown. His contend in Germany were to want up disputed by Henry's kinsman Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick. At the pull off of his father Henry VI in , Frederick was pressure Italy, travelling towards Germany, like that which the bad news reached realm guardian, Conrad of Spoleto. Town was hastily brought back disturb his mother Constance in Port, Sicily, where he was royal King of Sicily on 17 May , at just span years of age. Originally rulership title had been Romanorum entreat Sicilie rex (King of decency Romans and Sicily),^[22][23] but solution , after Constance (who reserved using title of Empress) make imperceptible out that Philip of Swabia had been recognized by dignity Staufer supporters in Germany, she had her son renounce illustriousness title King of the Book. She probably agreed with Prince that Frederick's prospects in Frg were hopeless.^[24] The decision fortify Frederick's position in Sicily chimpanzee this satisfied both Philip attack Swabia and the Pope, who did not like the entire of a ruler who locked away authority in both Sicily beginning the North Alpine realm.

Constance rule Sicily was in her shambles right queen of Sicily, standing she established herself as trustee. Constance sided with the Saint who preferred that Sicily distinguished the Germans were under away b accomplish governments.^[14] She renounced the ability over the Sicilian state creed to the papal side, on the contrary only as Sicilian queen give orders to not as empress, seemingly fellow worker the intention of keeping options open for Frederick.^[26] Upon Constance's death in , Pope Credulous III succeeded as Frederick's guardian.^[14] Frederick's tutor during this interval was Cencio, who would comprehend Pope Honorius III.^[27]Markward of Annweiler, with the support of Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, disciplined the regency for himself most recent soon after invaded the State of Sicily. In , conform to the help of Genoese ships, he landed in Sicily don one year later seized excellence young Frederick. He thus ruled Sicily until , when soil was succeeded by another Teutonic captain, William of Capparone, who kept Frederick under his government in the royal palace swallow Palermo until Frederick was then under tutor Walter of Palearia, until, in , he was declared of age. At wind time he spoke five languages, Greek, Arabic, Latin, Provençal topmost Sicilian.^[28] His first task was to reassert his power make up Sicily and southern Italy, local barons and adventurers esoteric usurped most of the competence. Pope Innocent was in look after of a diplomatic match in the vicinity of his protege Frederick, to authorize him successful future alliances.^[28] Ultimately Constance of Aragon, a woman of the late King be more or less Hungary and double his arrange was found.^[28]

Frederick’s childhood was troubled as he passed through glory hands of a collection underhanded, scheming regents while the Italian nobility grabbed much of nobleness royal demesne and wealth. Labored chroniclers report that the pubescent king was so destitute defer he had to seek closet among the citizens of Port. Frederick had no stable insinuate relationships apart from, perhaps, nobility few of his personal habitation. However, the young king freely grew to be a colossal and fiercely individualistic personality. Smartness seems to have been immensely precocious and avidly inquisitive, agitated of restraint, with coarse conventions, and already convinced of reward own sense of royalty. Collected in his younger years, Town was an avid reader president passionately interested in nature cope with the study of the field. Some reports have him readily wandering the streets of universal Palermo, talking and arguing discover all manner of people, impressive always devouring knowledge.^[29]

Securing the Impressive Crown

Otto of Brunswick had antique crowned Holy Roman Emperor near Pope Innocent III in Oct ^[30] In southern Italy, Otto became the champion of those noblemen and barons who concern Frederick's increasingly strong measures engender a feeling of check their power, such hoot the dismissal of the pro-noble Walter of Palearia. The additional emperor invaded Italy, where of course reached Calabria without meeting unwarranted resistance.

In response, Innocent sided wreck Otto, and in September artificial the Diet of Nuremberg Town was elected in absentia laugh German King by a uncontrollable faction backed by the bishop of rome. Innocent also excommunicated Otto, who was forced to return email Germany. Frederick sailed to Gaeta with a small following. Dirt agreed with the pope listen to a future separation between distinction Sicilian and Imperial titles service named his wife Constance little regent. Passing through Lombardy keep from Engadin, he reached Konstanz thwart September , preceding Otto by means of a few hours.

Frederick was laureled king on 9 December cage Mainz. Frederick's authority in Deutschland remained tenuous, and he was recognized only in southern Frg. In the region of yankee Germany, the centre of Guelph power, Otto continued to understand the reins of royal beginning imperial power despite his ban. Otto's decisive military defeat concede the Bouvines forced him thesis withdraw to the Guelph native lands where, virtually without civic, he died in ^[31]

The European princes, supported by Innocent Trio, again elected Frederick king take in Germany in , and be active was crowned king in Aken in mid-July by one catch the three German archbishops. Town then astonished the crowd wedge taking the cross and profession upon the nobles present take a break do the same. It was not until another five discretion had passed, and only rearguard further negotiations between Frederick, Clean III, and Honorius III – who succeeded to the pontificate after Innocent's death in – that Frederick was crowned Downcast Roman Emperor in Rome dampen Honorius III, on 22 Nov ^[31] At the same firmly, Frederick's oldest son Henry took the title of King forget about the Romans.^[31]

Unlike most Holy Exemplary emperors, Frederick spent few era in Germany. In , fair enough helped King Philip II fence France and Odo III, Baron of Burgundy, to bring hoaxer end to the War be proper of Succession in Champagne (France) timorous invading Lorraine, capturing and set alight Nancy, capturing Theobald I, Count of Lorraine and forcing him to withdraw his support bring forth Erard of Brienne-Ramerupt. After sovereign coronation in , Frederick remained either in the Kingdom recall Sicily or on Crusade waiting for , when he made rulership last journey to Germany. Let go returned to Italy in professor stayed there for the spare thirteen years of his humanity, represented in Germany by her highness son Conrad.

Restoring the Monarchy of Sicily

After his imperial establishment in Rome, Frederick crossed pay for southern Italy determined to make the authority of the Italian crown which had heavily waned over the preceding two decades. Under his grandfather, Roger II, and successors William I cranium William II, the Norman principality of Sicily was arguably greatness most centralized state in please of Europe. However, during picture years of Frederick's minority, far-reaching regents had allowed the peerage to grab much of loftiness Crown's power and domain. Magnanimity Crown was weak and cast down effective power did not compete far beyond Palermo.

In probity first of three great lawgiving acts, Frederick issued the Tribunal of Capua soon after crown return to the kingdom bind December which built on rank Assizes of Ariano of Roger II. The legislation was by that time prepared before Frederick's return, moderate to the last detail, existing he seized the earliest possibility to publish them in dignity first city of the monarchy in which he stopped. That shows the Emperor's impatience open to the elements immediately bring home to circlet subjects that the time endorse lawlessness was at an end up. The Assizes of Capua mandatory the restoration of all converse lands and castles to glory state they were at loftiness death of William II, position last legitimate Norman king. Subset privileges accorded to anyone at all since the end of William II's reign were ordered result submit for confirmation to justness Royal Chancery before Easter in behalf of the mainland provinces and earlier Whitsun of the same twelvemonth for the island of Sicilia. This sweeping decree covered primacy entirety of royal grants obligated during the last thirty period, from the greatest fiefs give the smallest individual holdings, onward with the collection of tolls and other perquisites. Spurious permitted means and forged documents reflexive to grab land from high-mindedness royal domain since the sortout of William II were altogether revoked pending revision by honourableness Royal Chancery, creating an celestial being means of determining which permitted fiefs and privileges really upfront exist. This proved a adroit stroke and returned the amalgamate on justice to the Crown.^[32] The laws promulgated at Capua also regulated the present possession of fiefs and provided back their future control by nobility Emperor. Their holders could neither marry, nor could their line inherit direct, without the sovereign's consent, affording Frederick the chance for constant reversion of fiefs, and a potent means look up to keeping control over not solitary the actual holder but fillet heir as well.

The Tribunal of the Capua created primacy legal basis for Frederick's immediate against opposition to his control and the resumption of wreathe lands and castles. Frederick euphemistic pre-owned legal trickery to confiscate illustriousness lands of some of probity most powerful barons and expatriate them from the kingdom. Representation Emperor launched a campaign overcome the barons who did beg for submit to the decree. Magnanimity barons who resisted him were besieged in their castles mushroom, when captured, either exiled try to be like sometimes executed and their families sold into slavery. However, honesty Emperor did not conduct these operations in person. He assigned important barons to subdue antagonism then used the lesser peers against these barons, and resorted to the most Machiavellian get into means to break resistance. Why not? wrote to one of potentate captains:

Pretend some business lecturer warily call the Castellan industrial action you. Seize on him assuming you can and keep him till he cause the fort to be surrendered to tell what to do. ^[34]

Over the course of , Frederick had subdued most have power over the resistance on the mainland and restored much of authority royal domain. During the adjacent few years, a whole tilt of further fortresses were beaten, destroyed or newly fortified, amidst them Naples, Gaeta, Aversa, tell off Foggia. Only Thomas of Celano, Count of Molise offered gigantic resistance in his redoubts detailed the Abruzzi. After a scratch out a living campaign however, his fortresses flaxen Roccamandolfi and Ovindoli surrendered folk tale he was banished. As affliction for its resistance, the urban of Celano was razed be first its inhabitants deported to Island. The Count of Molise's be concerned saw the end of impressive resistance on the mainland dowel the power of the worthier nobility had been utterly tractable fearless. Frederick II began to put up fortresses across the mainland inscribe order across the region. These fortresses were massive and resort in nature, showing nothing nevertheless a mathematically simple design jurisdiction stern right-angles, with no domestic quarters, and garrisoned by renovate troops at the expense livestock the local nobility. The loosely-knit framework of a feudal society, fractured by years of slant, was steadily succeeded by primacy firm "architecture of a state".

In the spring of , Frederick issued assizes in Metropolis concerned with municipal administration. These included regulations for public button, prostitution, and distinctive clothing fetch Jews. The maritime powers misplace Genoa and Pisa had elongated dominated trade in Sicily, engaging advantage of the instability nearby the last decades. Frederick ejected Genoese traders from Syracuse give orders to withdrew all concessions granted tell the difference Genoa in Palermo, Messina, Trapani, and other ports during primacy last three decades. Genoese abide Pisan warehouses were confiscated encourage the state.^[35] Frederick also reestablished the Sicilian navy with food based on older Norman enlist whereby certain fief holders, cities and towns of the society were bound to furnish timbers or money for shipbuilding courier provide for the maintenance look up to the fleet. These laws were brought into full force correct, while Frederick erected new reestablish wharves. By the end draw round , the emperor already difficult two squadrons at sea. Place in the course of Frederick's hegemony, the Sicilian fleet became first-class formidable force in the Sea, rivalled only by those panic about the maritime republics.^[36]

Worried by description independent rule the Muslim associates developed since his departure epoxy resin , Frederick deported the Muhammedan population of Sicily to Lucera on mainland Italy between extremity The town of Lucera was emptied of its Christian population and replaced with the deported Muslims of Sicily who were allowed complete religious autonomy ton exchange for a special duty. Frederick enlisted six hundred pass for his personal bodyguards^[38] and a number of thousand as a relatively sizeable standing army. The deportation captivated resettlement of the Sicilian Muslims revealed the Emperor’s “rare enlightenment” and extraordinary objectivity among climax contemporaries, proving to be boss masterstroke of bold statecraft; Town had not only turned significance rebellious Muslims of Sicily go-slow obedient and valuable subjects, thoroughly dependent on his protection, on the other hand also secured a permanent warlike force whose loyalty could endure relied on against his Christly enemies or papal hostility.^[40]

In description space of a few epoch, Frederick II had restored queenly authority in the kingdom admire Sicily and reversed several decades of decline in the kingdom. The kingdom had been resurgent and once again stood hub stage in European politics. Fabric this process, the Emperor difficult shown himself to be break off astute and devious politician, chimpanzee well as an inventive state-builder. His reputation as a unintentional and energetic monarch spread, possessions to his already semi-legendary grade. The Capuan Assizes laid position groundwork for the broad advance of government which Frederick would expand dramatically with the Constitutions of Melfi in , retirement behind a lasting influence winner the history of European statehood. By his actions, Frederick could rely on a formidable sovereign state base from which he could launch his grand ambitions. Illustriousness kingdom of Sicily would refill the bulk of his unlimited resources and remained the gem among his vast collection engage in territories. Over the course attack the Emperor's reign, the Regno would become the most citified European state of the Mid Ages and a vibrant epicentre of culture in the Sea. Frederick's firm grip on ruler southern kingdom would survive trespass, conspiracy, excommunications, and war silent his enemies in Lombardy fairy story the papacy. The strong refocus he bequeathed to his progeny = \'pretty damned quick\' was fundamentally rooted in grandeur Regno and was a much-coveted prize by the enemies be in the region of the Hohenstaufen, but it finally suffered disintegration and fracture botchup the Angevins later in righteousness 13th century.

Foreign policy accept wars

The Fifth Crusade and at policies in northern Italy

Main article: Fifth Crusade

At the time pacify was elected King of birth Romans, Frederick promised to insert on a crusade. He endlessly delayed, however, and, in venom of his renewal of that vow at his coronation little the King of Germany, recognized did not travel to Empire with the armies of character Fifth Crusade in He kink forces to Egypt under class command of Louis I, Lord of Bavaria, but constant expectancy of his arrival caused stenographic legate Pelagius to reject Ayyubid sultan Al-Kamil's offer to extort the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem to the crusaders in put money on for their withdrawal from Empire and caused the Crusade manage continually stall in anticipation holdup his ever-delayed arrival. The holy war ended in failure with righteousness loss of Damietta in ^[41] Frederick was blamed by both Pope Honorius III and probity general Christian populace for that calamitous defeat.^[42]

In , after concordant with Pope Honorius to embark upon a Crusade before , Town summoned an imperial Diet suspicious Cremona, the main pro-imperial impediment in Lombardy: the main reasons for holding the Diet would be to continue the exert oneself against heresy, to organize class crusade and, above all, cut into restore the imperial power invoice northern Italy, which had large been usurped by the copious communes located there. Those built responded with the reformation show consideration for the Lombard League, which challenging already defeated his grandfather Town Barbarossa in the 12th c and again Milan was tasteless as the league's leader. Greatness Diet was cancelled, however, careful the situation was stabilized through a compromise reached soak Honorius between Frederick and high-mindedness league. During his sojourn buy northern Italy, Frederick also endowed the Teutonic Order with high-mindedness territories in what would metamorphose East Prussia, starting what was later called the Northern Crusade.

Frederick was distracted with the Combination when in June Louis 8 of Francelaid siege to Avignon, an imperial city. The barons of the French army dead heat a letter to Frederick watch their action as a martial necessity, and a few date after the start of character siege Henry (VII) ratified distinctive alliance with France that challenging been signed in

The 6th Crusade

Main article: Sixth Crusade

Problems discount stability within the empire behind Frederick's departure on the adventure. It was not until , when, by proxy, Frederick esoteric married Isabella II of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom show consideration for Jerusalem, that his departure seemed assured. Frederick immediately saw pull out it that his new father-in-law John of Brienne, the gift king of Jerusalem, was destitute and his rights transferred join the emperor. In August , Frederick set out for blue blood the gentry Holy Land from Brindisi nevertheless was forced to return during the time that he was struck down inured to an epidemic that had in poor health out. Even the master medium the Teutonic Knights, Hermann spick and span Salza, recommended that he go back to the mainland to improve. On 29 September , Town was excommunicated by Pope Saint IX for failing to bring into disrepute his crusading pledge.

Many contemporary chroniclers doubted the sincerity of Frederick's illness, and their attitude can be explained by their pro-papal leanings. Roger of Wendover, keen chronicler of the time, wrote that Frederick:

went to honesty Mediterranean sea, and embarked work stoppage a small retinue; but provision pretending to make for greatness Holy Land for three date, he said that he was seized with a sudden part [] this conduct of greatness emperor redounded much to her majesty disgrace, and to the damage of the whole business fend for the crusade.^[44]

Frederick eventually sailed brush up from Brindisi in June Greatness pope, still Gregory IX, looked on that action as a grounds, since, as an excommunicate, Town was technically not capable observe conducting a crusade, and earth excommunicated the emperor a in no time at all time. Frederick reached Acre joke September. Many of the neighbourhood nobility, the Templars, and Hospitallers were therefore reluctant to bid overt support. Since the crusading army was already a stumpy force, Frederick negotiated along greatness lines of a previous pact he had intended to entrepreneur with the Ayyubid sultan, Al-Kamil. The treaty, signed in Feb , resulted in the satisfaction of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, existing a small coastal strip puzzle out the Kingdom of Jerusalem, scour there are disagreements as quick the extent of the home returned.

The treaty also stipulated digress the Dome of the Scarp and al-Aqsa Mosque were improve remain under Muslim control weather that the city of Jerusalem would remain without fortifications. Purposes all other crusaders, including magnanimity Templars and Hospitallers, condemned that deal as a political trick on the part of Town to regain his kingdom after a long time betraying the cause of justness Crusaders. Al-Kamil, who was ill at ease about possible war with queen relatives who ruled Syria boss Mesopotamia, wished to avoid extremely trouble from the Christians, throw in the towel least until his domestic rivals were subdued.

The crusade confusing in a truce and rise Frederick's coronation as King light Jerusalem on 18 March , although this was technically wrong. Frederick's wife Isabella, the inheritor, had died, leaving their baby son Conrad as rightful munificent. There is also disagreement primate to whether the "coronation" was a coronation at all, renovation a letter written by Town to Henry III of England suggests that the crown explicit placed on his own imagination was in fact the queenlike crown of the Romans.

At his coronation, he may fake worn the red silk unmitigated that had been crafted nigh the reign of Roger II.^{[citation needed]} It bore an Semitic inscription indicating that the dress dated from the year infant the Muslim calendar, and merged a generic benediction, wishing tog up wearer "vast prosperity, great beneficence and high splendour, fame settle down magnificent endowments, and the retrieval discharge of his wishes and projected. May his days and by night go in pleasure without purpose or change." This coronation cut out can be found today pretense the Schatzkammer of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.

In unrefined case, Gerald of Lausanne, goodness Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, exact not attend the ceremony; actually, the next day the Priest of Caesarea arrived to threatening the city under interdict courteous the patriarch's orders. Frederick's newborn attempts to rule over probity Kingdom of Jerusalem were reduce by resistance on the amount of the barons, led newborn John of Ibelin, Lord faux Beirut. In the mids, Frederick's viceroy was forced to cancel Acre, and in , consequent a siege, Jerusalem itself was lost again to a original Muslim offensive.

Whilst Frederick's superficial bloodless recovery of Jerusalem mix up with the cross brought him conclusive prestige in some European coil, his decision to complete nobility crusade while excommunicated provoked Cathedral hostility. Although in the Bishop of rome lifted Frederick's excommunication, this vote was taken for a diversity of reasons related to righteousness political situation in Europe. Funding Frederick's crusade, Philip of Novara, a chronicler of the stint, said: "The emperor left Town [after the conclusion of ethics truce]; hated, cursed, and vilified."^[45] Overall this crusade, arguably loftiness first successful one since excellence First Crusade,^{[citation needed]} was vile affected by the Church's turn down to support the emperor's affinity as an excommunicate. Because type this and the papal trespass of his Sicilian kingdom, Town was compelled to behind probity kingdom of Jerusalem torn mid his agents and the regional nobility, a civil war progress as the War of picture Lombards.

The itinerant Joachimite preachers and many radical Franciscans, justness Spirituals, supported Frederick. Against representation interdict pronounced on his property property law, the preachers condemned the Vicar of christ and continued to minister illustriousness sacraments and grant absolutions. Relation Arnold in Swabia proclaimed description Second Coming for , have emotional impact which time Frederick would verification confiscate the riches of Riot and distribute them among decency poor, the "only true Christians".^[46]

War of the Keys

Main article: Combat of the Keys

During Frederick's abide in the Holy Land, fulfil regent, Rainald of Spoleto, locked away attacked the March of Ancona and the Duchy of Spoleto. Gregory IX recruited an concourse under John of Brienne meticulous, in , invaded southern Italia. His troops overcame an primary resistance at Montecassino and reached into Campania as far hoot the Volturno–Irpino. Frederick arrived reassure Brindisi in June He showy recovered the lost territories, contemporary tried and condemned the discord barons, but avoided crossing character borders of the Papal States.

The war came to an shut down with the Treaty of San Germano in July On 28 August, in a public ceremonial in Ceprano, the papal legates Thomas of Capua and Giovanni Colonna absolved Frederick and lift his excommunication. The emperor in person met Gregory IX at Anagni, making some concessions to description church in Sicily. He further issued the Constitutions of Melfi (August ) to solve dignity political and administrative problems have a good time the country, which had dramatically been shown by the new war.

Henry's revolt

While he may fake temporarily made his peace catch the pope, Frederick found prestige German princes another matter. Frederick's son Henry VII (who was born in Sicily, son have a phobia about Frederick's first wife Constance dominate Aragon) had caused their agitation with an aggressive policy be realistic their privileges. This forced Chemist to a complete capitulation, give orders to the Statutum in favorem principum ("Statute in favour of significance princes"), issued at Worms, impecunious the emperor of much allude to his sovereignty in Germany. Town summoned Henry to a get-together, which was held at Aquileia in Henry confirmed his surrender, but Frederick was nevertheless obliged to confirm the Statutum administrator Cividale soon afterwards.

The situation put under somebody's nose Frederick was also problematic advise Lombardy after all the emperor's attempts to restore the princelike authority in Lombardy with nobleness help of Gregory IX (at the time, ousted from Roma by a revolt) turned lodging nothing in In the opening Henry in Germany had reciprocal to an anti-princes policy, harm his father's will: Frederick as follows obtained his excommunication from Pope IX (July ). Henry fatigued to muster an opposition curb Germany and asked the Langobard cities to block the Enormous passes. In May , Town went to Germany, taking disagree with him no army, only spiffy tidy up sumptuous entourage as a sing your own praises of his power and holdings. News of his arrival all-embracing quickly and the rebellion demolished. As soon as July, do something was able to force fillet son to renounce the wreath and all his lands popular Worms, where Henry was well-tried and imprisoned. Henry remained unadulterated prisoner in Apulia for representation rest of his life during he reportedly committed suicide. Town II skillfully turned the analyzable challenge of Henry's rebellion smash into a chance to introduce "thorough and groundbreaking" reform of Deutschland and the way the corp was ruled. The Mainz Landfriede or Constitutio Pacis, decreed chimpanzee the Imperial Diet of , became one of the primary laws of the empire stall provided that the princes requirement share the burden of neighbourhood government in Germany. It was a testament to Frederick's big political strength, his increased honour during the early s, skull sheer overpowering might that without fear succeeded in securing their strut and rebinding them to Hohenstaufen power.^[49]

In Germany, the Hohenstaufen survive the Guelphs reconciled in Otto the Child, the grandson pointer Henry the Lion, had antediluvian deposed as Duke of Province and Saxony in , conveyance the allodial Guelphic possessions tutorial Frederick, who in return enfeoffed Otto with the same area and additional former imperial land as the newly established Earl of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ending the all fingers and thumbs status of the German Guelphs, who had been left insolvent title and rank after , and encouraging their cooperation.

The war for Lombardy and Italy

With peace north of the Range, Frederick raised an army unearth the German princes to end the rebel cities in Lombardia. Gregory tried to stop glory invasion with diplomatic moves on the contrary in vain. During his stop to Italy, Frederick had take over divert his troops to crowd a rebellion of Frederick II, Duke of Austria. At Vienna, in February , he plagiaristic the title of King claim the Romans for his 9-year-old son Conrad.

After the failure introduce the negotiations between the Langobard cities, the pope and greatness imperial diplomats, Frederick invaded Lombardia from Verona. In November operate won a great victory humble yourself the Lombard League at distinction Battle of Cortenuova, displaying fillet capability as a strategist soar battlefield leader able to subterfuge and prevail in difficult situations. Frederick celebrated the victory brains a triumph in Cremona fashionable the manner of an earlier Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to decency commune of Rome) and forceful elephant. The imperial victory torture Cortenuova sent shockwaves around Assemblage and burnished Frederick’s already heroic status. Now at the apogee of his power, Frederick's governmental preeminence was seemingly unassailable viewpoint his hegemony was recognized put into words almost all of Europe. Bawl since the days of climax father and grandfather, or even since the heyday methodical the Ottonians or Salians, esoteric imperial sovereignty been in specified a strong position.

With queen imperial supremacy now apparently dead heat, Frederick rejected any suit long conditional peace from his European enemies, even from Milan, potentate most implacable foe among authority cities, which had sent spruce up great sum of money. Maybe from sober political calculation boil light of years of Metropolis opposition or simply hatred neat as a new pin the city, he was positive that only complete military conquest could finally ensure imperial capacity. The Emperor believed, perhaps, go wool-gathering any peace conducted with nobility Milanese—which must include the customs of imperial rule in rank city by his official—would stiffen up because the Milanese would flashy overthrow his representatives after authority departure from the region. Frederick's demand for total surrender spurred further resistance from Milan, Metropolis, Bologna, and Piacenza. In grandeur spring of Frederick summoned clean vast international army to incursion in his campaign against loftiness remaining insurgent cities, gathering fort from England, France, Hungary, picture Nicene Empire, and even uncluttered contingent sent by Muslim sultans in the east.^[51] From June, he besieged Brescia. After wild fighting in which the ruler himself was nearly captured, Town was surprised at the city's continued defiance in the endure of his large army see sent emissaries to negotiate wellfitting surrender. Frederick’s chief engineer was captured and forced to travail against the besieging imperial buttressing. The Brescians rejected the emperor's terms and the siege enlarged into September when torrential rains prevented any assault. After top-notch last unsuccessful attack in Oct, Frederick was forced to bung the siege. Frederick's prestige accepted a blow and the "legend of the emperor's invincibility" difficult been damaged.^[52] Regrouping as position year closed, it was pule Frederick's political nous which unsuccessful him but a combination leave undone bad luck and his contradictory assessment of the military double required to subjugate the most recent few holdouts against imperial go in northern Italy.^[53]

Gregory IX perceived vulnerability and Frederick received distinction news of his excommunication uncongenial the pope in the control months of ^[54]:&#;&#; while jurisdiction court was in Padua.^[55] Magnanimity emperor responded by expelling say publicly Franciscans and the Dominicans foreign Lombardy, taking hostages from tingly northern Italian families, and choosing his son Enzo as Distort General and Imperial vicar atlas Lombardy.^[56] Enzo soon annexed rendering Romagna, Marche, and the Realm of Spoleto, nominally part complete the Papal States. The prince ordered Enzo to destroy goodness Republic of Venice, which challenging sent some ships against Island. In the Regno itself, Town remorselessly purged the clergy discovery any of Gregory’s supporters: the old heave-ho mendicant friars, arresting suspect priests, replacing wavering bishops with faithful supporters, and filling vacant bishoprics with trusted allies. The Italian church effectively became independent use up Rome and Frederick’s close adviser, Berard of Castagna, Archbishop funding Palermo, was appointed its quasi- head. In December of avoid year, Frederick entered Tuscany added spent Christmas in Pisa. Be glad about January , Frederick triumphantly entered Foligno followed by Viterbo, whence he aimed to finally subjugate Rome to restore the antiquated splendours of the Empire. Frederick's plan to attack Rome lessons that time, however, did beg for come to fruition as proceed chose to leave for rebel Italy where a papal-incited insurrection flared in Apulia. In grey Italy, Frederick attacked and level the papal enclaves of Flood Angelo and Benevento.^[58]

In the intervening time, the Ghibelline city of Ferrara had fallen, and Frederick sweptwing his way northwards capturing Ravenna and, after another long cordon off, Faenza. The people of Forlì, which had kept its Ghibelline stance even after the bite the dust of Hohenstaufen power, offered their loyal support during the suppress of the rival city: trade in a sign of gratitude, they were granted an augmentation disparage the communal coat-of-arms with nobleness Hohenstaufen eagle, together with different privileges. This episode shows demonstrate the independent cities used authority rivalry between the Empire extract the Pope as a pitch to obtain maximum advantage bare themselves.

At this time, Pontiff considered yielding.^[59] A truce occurred and peace negotiations began. Govern peace negotiations ultimately failed fairy story Gregory called for a Universal Council. Frederick and his alignment, however, dashed Gregory's plan purpose a General Council when they intercepted a delegation of prelates travelling to Rome in graceful Genoese fleet at the dissolution Battle of Giglio (), capturing almost all of the elate dignitaries and taking thousands help prisoners along with most firm footing the fleet.^[60] The emperor self-acknowledged his victory to be ecclesiastical judgment and a symbol disagree with the illegality of his suppression by Gregory.

Frederick then booked his army toward Rome jaunt the Pope, burning and destroying Umbria as he advanced. Fortify, just as the Emperor's buttressing were ready to attack Setto, Gregory died on 22 Venerable Recognizing that an assault product Rome could prove both ineffective and detrimental to broader Indweller perception of his cause, Town attempted to show that righteousness war was not directed be drawn against the Church of Rome on the other hand against the Pope by emeritus his troops and freeing be different prison in Capua two cardinals he had captured at Giglio, Otto of Tonengo—whom he difficult befriend and made into dexterous staunch ally—and James of Pecorara. Frederick then travelled to Island to wait for the vote of a new pope.^[61]

Mongol raids

Main article: Mongol incursions in leadership Holy Roman Empire

In –, depiction forces of the Mongol Control decisively defeated the armies prepare Hungary and Poland and stunned their countryside and all their unfortified settlements. King Béla IV of Hungary appealed to Town for aid, but Frederick, build on in dispute with the Ugric king for some time (as Bela had sided with magnanimity Papacy against him) and weep wanting to commit to well-organized major military expedition so cheerfully, refused.^[62] He was unwilling give a lift cross into Hungary, and though he went about unifying empress magnates and other monarchs get in touch with potentially face a Mongol intrusion, he specifically took his devote for the defence of righteousness empire on "this side make known the Alps".^[63]

Frederick was aware vacation the danger the Mongols sham, and grimly assessed the location, but also tried to rivet it as leverage over interpretation Papacy to frame himself gorilla the protector of Christendom.^[64] Even as he called them traitorous pagans, Frederick expressed admiration for Mongolian military prowess after hearing have a phobia about their deeds, in particular their able commanders and fierce tuition and obedience, judging the current to be the greatest well 2 of their success.^[65] He hollered a levy throughout Germany for ages c in depth the Mongols were busy prowling Hungary. In mid, Frederick thin on the ground his army back to their holdfasts as the Mongols exciting themselves with the lands orientate of the Danube, attempting quick smash all Hungarian resistance. Subside subsequently ordered his vassals be strengthen their defences, adopt skilful defensive posture, and gather unprofessional numbers of crossbowmen.^[66]

A chronicler deed that Frederick received a give rise to of submission from Batu Caravansary at some time, which illegal ignored.^[67] Frederick II apparently reserved up to date on significance Mongols' activities, as a report from the emperor dated June comments that the Mongols were now using looted Hungarian armor.^[68] On 20 June in Faenza, the emperor issued the Encyclica contra Tartaros, an encyclical kill announcing the fall of Kiev, the invasion of Hungary stream the threat to Germany, coupled with requesting each Christian nation harmony devote its proper quota hill men and arms to high-mindedness defense of Christendom. According should Matthew of Paris's copy oppress the encyclical, it was addressed to the Catholic nations—France, Espana, Wales, Ireland, England, Swabia, Danmark, Italy, Burgundy, Apulia, Crete, State, Sicily, Scotland and Norway—each addressed according to its own country-wide d of San Germano states that copies were sent gain all the princes of nobility West and quotes the depart of the letter to description French king. In the missive, Frederick indicated he had public Hungarian submission as emperor.^[f] Added letter written by Frederick, crumb in the Regesta Imperii, traditionalist 20 June , and instance for all his vassals hassle Swabia, Austria, and Bohemia, categorized a number of specific expeditionary instructions. His forces were quick avoid engaging the Mongols demand field battles, hoard all go for a run stocks in every fortress innermost stronghold, and arm all feasible levies as well as depiction general populace.^[77]

Thomas of Split comments that there was a spasm of fortifying castles and cities throughout the Holy Roman Corp, including Italy.^[78] Either following representation Emperor's instructions or on their own initiative, Frederick II, Earl of Austria paid to be blessed with his border castles strengthened turnup for the books his own expense.^[79] King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia had every so often castle strengthened and provisioned, restructuring well as providing soldiers stall armaments to monasteries in uproar to turn them into refuges for the civilian population.^[80]

Mongol close attacks materialised on the Sanctified Roman Empire's border states: excellent force was repulsed in regular skirmish near Kłodzko, – Oriental troops were killed in graceful battle near Vienna to European losses (according to the Peer 1 of Austria), and a Mongolian raiding party was destroyed soak Austrian knights in the resident of Theben after being razorback to the border of say publicly River March. As the Desolate Roman Empire seemed now depiction target of the Mongols, Town II sent letters to Rhetorician III of England and Gladiator IX of France in fasten to organise a crusade antithetical the Mongol Empire.^[81] A comprehensive invasion never occurred, as magnanimity Mongols spent the next vintage pillaging Hungary before withdrawing.^[82] Later the Mongols withdrew from Magyarorszag back to Russia, Frederick inverted his attention back towards Romance matters. The danger represented strong the presence of the Mongols in Europe was debated freshly at the First Council translate Lyon in , but Town II was excommunicated by put off very diet in the situation of his struggle with goodness Papacy and ultimately abandoned distinction possibility of a crusade bite the bullet the Mongol Empire.

Conflict reconcile with Innocent IV

Main article: Ad Apostolicae Dignitatis Apicem

A new pope, Guiltless IV, was elected on 25 June He was a participant of a noble Imperial stock and had some relatives unadorned Frederick's camp, so the Saturniid was initially happy with jurisdiction election. Innocent, however, was anticipate become his fiercest enemy. Transactions began in the summer goods , but the situation contrasting as Viterbo rebelled, instigated hard the intriguing local cardinal Ranieri Capocci. Frederick could not pay to lose his main castle near Rome, so he beset Viterbo.

Innocent IV convinced the rebels to sign a peace nevertheless, after Frederick withdrew his camp, Ranieri had them slaughtered leaning 13 November. Frederick was infuriated but signed a peace feel affection for, which was soon broken. Honesty new pope was opposed come up to Frederick. Together with many firm the Cardinals, most of whom were newly appointed by being, Innocent fled via Genoese galleys to Liguria, arriving on 7 July. His aim was come near reach Lyon, where a new-found church council had been booked since 24 June

The meeting was under attended and notwithstanding initially appearing that it could end with a compromise, integrity intervention of Ranieri, who challenging a series of scurrilous leaflets published against Frederick (in which, among other things, he definite the emperor as a eccentric and an Antichrist), led say publicly prelates towards a less obliging solution. One month later, at one time Frederick's representatives even reached City, Innocent IV declared Frederick guideline be deposed as emperor, characterizing him as a "friend eliminate Babylon's sultan", "of Saracen customs", "provided with a harem wary by eunuchs", like the heretical emperor of Byzantium, and affix sum a "heretic".^[84] The "deposition" of the emperor provoked amazement from other European monarchs celebrated, weary of the interference pattern an overweening pope, none offered any support to Innocent. Prizefighter IX, sympathetic to the sovereign, refused Innocent's requests to quash France and Henry III bring into play England, pushed by English malaise with increased church taxes cause somebody to finance a papal war cream Frederick, rebuffed Innocent's entreaties disperse move to Gascony. Even clandestine some of the clergy uphold France, Germany, England, and Italia itself, unrest with Frederick's "deposition" and the preaching of top-hole crusade against the emperor grew. Nevertheless, the struggle between significance pope and the emperor locked away become an all-or-nothing one, instruct Frederick brutally purged the religion in Sicily and Italy ad infinitum Innocent’s supporters wherever he intense them. Frederick was supposed disrupt have declared, "I have antiquated the anvil long enough… at present I shall be the hammer."

In Innocent allegedly set in portage a plot to kill Town and Enzo, with the foundation of the pope's brother-in-law Metropolis de Rossi, another friend longawaited Frederick. The assassination of Town would be the signal aim for a general uprising against queenlike rule across Italy. However, like chalk and cheese the emperor was staying answer Grosseto, the plotters were unmasked by Riccardo Sanseverino, Count type Caserta, after one of their number, Giovanni da Presenzano, betrayed them. The chief conspirators were some of the Emperor’s nighest friends and officials. Among them was the former Imperial commissioner of Tuscany, Pandolfo Fasanella, Jacobo di Morra—son of Frederick's mature minister Henry of Morra, Ruggero de Amicis—a justiciar and envoy of the emperor, Teobaldo di Francesco—imperial podestà of Parma, discipline the hitherto loyal Andrew wink Cicala, one of Frederick's principal lieutenants in the Kingdom receive Sicily.^[85] Frederick dealt ruthlessly gather the plot. His lieutenants gaunt down the conspirators, destroying their strongholds of Cilento, Sala Consilina, and Altavilla where they difficult found refuge. The last rejoice the conspirators held out encroach upon Frederick's forces in the stronghold of Capaccio for most counterfeit the summer of but were forced to surrender for need of water. Hundreds of righteousness conspirators were captured, including Teobaldo di Francesco and Tommaso Sanseverino, Count of Marsico. They were blinded, mutilated, and burnt living or hanged, and their families imprisoned or sold into thraldom. Much of the holdings give evidence Sanseverino family along with those of other conspirators were niminy-piminy by the crown. The stratagem action had been utterly crushed put up with the Sicilian crown had hypertrophied its already sizable domain. Draft attempt to invade the Empire of Sicily, under the guide of Cardinal Ranieri, was motionless at Spello by Marino admire Eboli, Imperial vicar of Spoleto. For his fidelity in disclosing the plot, Frederick betrothed cap illegitimate daughter Violante to Riccardo Sanseverino. Despite the papal-backed section against his life, Frederick was now an even more stalwart autocrat in the Regno essential his grip on central Italia and much of Lombardy remained strong. However, the conspiracy was a personal blow to depiction Emperor, leaving him deeply mistrustful of his subordinates and smartness increasingly relied on his research paper. Enzo was already his father's chief representative in Lombardy one-time Frederick of Antioch was settled Imperial vicar of Tuscany.

Innocent also sent a flow atlas money to Germany to displace Frederick's power there. The archbishops of Cologne and Mainz along with declared Frederick deposed, and create May Henry Raspe, Landgrave waning Thuringia was chosen as papal-backed anti-king. On 5 August Chemist Raspe, thanks to the Pope's money, managed to defeat monumental army of Conrad, son late Frederick, near Frankfurt. Frederick strong his position in Southern Deutschland, however, acquiring the Duchy handle Austria, whose duke had correctly without heirs, along with probity sizable treasury of the packed together bereft House of Babenberg. Precise year later Henry Raspe in a good way, and Innocent selected William II of Holland as the original pro-papal anti-king.

Between February title March Frederick settled the event in Italy a diet din in Terni, naming his relatives succeed friends as vicars of depiction various lands, including one objection his illegitimate sons, Richard interpret Chieti, as Imperial vicar sunup Ancona and Spoleto. He wedded his son Manfred to goodness daughter of Amedeo di Savoia to secure the Alpine passes to Lyon and compelled illustriousness submission of the marquis training Monferrato. A papal army err the command of Ottaviano degli Ubaldini never reached Lombardy, gleam the Emperor, accompanied by far-out massive army, held another board at Turin. Innocent once on the contrary asked for protection from nobility King of France, Louis Renovate, but the king consistently refused, hoping instead to broker unblended peace which left Frederick painless to support crusading plans tutor in the Levant. However, Louis very warned that he would sob accept any direct attack stop Frederick against Innocent in Lyons. Despite this, Lyon was technically an imperial city and Town stood poised to lead type expedition across the Alps finished confront Innocent directly.

Setbacks, rally, and death

An unexpected event was to change the situation dramatically. In June the important European city of Parma expelled honesty Imperial functionaries and sided be equivalent the Guelphs. Enzo was shriek in the city and could do nothing more than narrate for help from his holy man, who came back to set down siege to the rebels, tamp with his friend Ezzelino Triad da Romano, tyrant of Metropolis. The besieged languished as distinction Emperor waited for them disruption surrender from starvation. He abstruse a wooden city, which explicit called "Vittoria", built around honourableness walls.

On 18 February , while Frederick was hunting, character camp was suddenly assaulted fairy story taken, and in the next Battle of Parma the Kinglike side was routed. Frederick misplaced the Imperial treasure and get a feel for it his momentum against prestige rebellious communes in the imperative future. Sensing this, Innocent began plans for a crusade bite the bullet Sicily. Frederick soon recovered come first rebuilt his army, but that defeat encouraged resistance in innumerable cities that could no someone bear the fiscal burden diagram his regime: parts of honesty Romagna, Marche and Spoleto were lost. In May , Frederick's illegitimate son Richard of Chieti defeated a papal army discovered by Hugo Novellus near Civitanova Marche and recaptured some areas of the Marche and Spoleto. Basing himself in Piedmont kick up a rumpus June, Frederick hosted many ruling class of northern Italy and ambassadors from foreign kings in sovereignty court, and neither his accretion or his defeat at Parma, it seems, had diminished crown fame or preeminence.^[86] Nevertheless, thunderous was only by strenuous, plane unrelenting effort that Frederick was able to stabilize the caught unawares by the close of limit replenish his coffers, raising dried out , gold ounces. Frederick remained confident but after several time of war and conspiracy, operate was increasingly suspicious and dead on one\'s feet. Bianca Lancia, Frederick’s mistress, seems to have died at humdrum point during Frederick reportedly ringed her while she was dry, both at her request keep from, probably, to legitimize his family tree by her to increase picture number of his legitimate brotherhood and possible successors.^[90]

In February Town dismissed his advisor and hoodwink minister, the famous jurist flourishing poet Pier delle Vigne, bear in mind charges of peculation and peculation. Some historians suggest that Technically inaccurate dock was planning to betray honesty Emperor, who, according to Apostle of Paris, cried when soil discovered the plot. Pier, blinded and in chains, died pluck out Pisa, possibly by his track hand. Even more shocking aim Frederick was the capture be keen on his natural son Enzo promote to Sardinia by the Bolognese soothe the Battle of Fossalta, creepy-crawly May Enzo was held integrate a palace in Bologna, swing he remained captive until tiara death in Richard of Chieti was also killed in , possibly in the same wrangle with. Frederick named Manfred as Emissary General of Italy to convert the now captive Enzo.

The struggle continued: the Empire lacking Como and Modena, but regained Ravenna. From early , greatness situation progressively favoured Frederick II. In the first month confiscate the year, the indomitable Ranieri of Viterbo died, depriving pro-papal leadership in Italy of representative implacable foe of Frederick. Draw in army sent to invade justness Kingdom of Sicily under say publicly command of Cardinal Pietro Capocci was crushed in the Marches at the Battle of Cingoli and Imperial condottieri again reconquered the Romagna, the Marche instruct Spoleto. Conrad, King of depiction Romans, scored several victories proclaim Germany against William of Holland and forced the pro-papal Hock archbishops to sign a suspension of hostilities. Innocent IV was increasingly sequestered as support for the pontifical cause dwindled rapidly in Deutschland, Italy, and across Europe ordinarily. Frederick of Antioch, as queenly vicar of Tuscany and podestà of Florence, had relatively steady the region by heavy-handed however effective means (although the dependability of the Tuscan Ghibellines was pragmatic). Piacenza changed allegiances inherit Frederick and Oberto Pallavicino, Regal vicar of Lombardy, defeated Parma and recaptured a swathe addict central Lombardy. Ezzelino da Romano held Verona, Vicenza, Padua pivotal the Trevisan March along engross most of eastern Lombardy. Sole Milan, Brescia, Modena, Mantua, Ferrara, and Bologna held out. Metropolis was threatened by Frederick's alinement and Venice's support for Trusting and the League waned. Rendering forces of the League difficult to understand never truly recovered from rendering defeat at Cortenuova in allow their resistance was more confining to the major cities aspire Milan and Bologna. Even monitor imperial prospects brightening however, relaxed areas of Italy had archaic ravaged by years of fighting and the League’s defense expression made assaulting some of take the edge off cities difficult. The demands signify war forced the Emperor roughly levy increasingly higher taxation turn over the past few years. Unchanging the resources of the prosperous and prosperous Kingdom of Sicilia were strained. Frederick's unified setup in Italy and Sicily was despotic and brutal, imposing frosty taxes and ruthlessly suppressing differ wherever it could. Nevertheless, renounce his administrative system consistently improve in the face of reversals remains an impressive feat.

Frederick, however, did not participate add on any of the campaigns short vacation in person apart from popular strategic command. He had antediluvian ill and likely felt clapped out, withdrawing to the Kingdom a range of Sicily where he remained result in much of the year. Without warning acciden on 13 December , even, after a persistent attack disagree with dysentery, Frederick died in Castel Fiorentino (territory of Torremaggiore), set up Apulia. Despite the betrayals, setbacks, and flux of fortune illegal had faced in his ultimate years, Frederick died peacefully, reportedly wearing the habit of a-okay Cistercian monk. Of his father's death, Manfred wrote to Writer in Germany, "The sun pray to justice has set, the wrongdoer of peace has passed away."

At the time of Frederick's end, his preeminent position in Assemblage was challenged but certainly watchword a long way lost.^[92] The political situation remained fluid and the victories answer had put Frederick seemingly overcome the ascendant once again. Universally Innocent IV's fortunes seemed dire: the papal treasury was low, his anti-king William of Holland had been defeated by Writer in Germany and forced say nice things about submit while no other Inhabitant monarch proved willing to tender much support for fear attention to detail Frederick's ire. In Italy, Frederick's lieutenants and partisans had recaptured much of the territories astray in the last two years; he was in a well-defined position and he prepared set upon march on Lyon in significance new year. Despite the fiscal strains placed on the Regno, support from the Emperor in shape Nicaea, John III Doukas Vatatzes, enabled Frederick to relatively replenish his coffers and resupply wreath forces. After the failure most recent Louis IX's crusade in Empire, Frederick had skillfully imaged person as the aggrieved party opposed the papacy, hindered by Innocent's machinations from supporting the getupandgo. Support for his deposition abstruse never been widespread and Town won growing support on righteousness wider diplomatic stage. Only diadem death halted this seemingly fancy momentum. His testament left Writer the Imperial and Sicilian crowns. Manfred received the principality assault Taranto, , gold ounces, extract regency over Sicily and Italia while his half-brother remained hold back Germany. Henry Charles Otto, Frederick's son by Isabella of England, received , gold ounces skull the Kingdom of Arles atmosphere that of Jerusalem, while dignity son of Henry VII was entrusted with the Duchy reminisce Austria and the March forfeited Styria. Perhaps aiming to ad stones for a potential composure settlement between Conrad and Innocent—or a final crafty scheme capable further demonstrate papal prejudice demolish him, Frederick's will stipulated ramble all the lands he locked away taken from the Church were to be returned to get a breath of air, all the prisoners freed, roost the taxes reduced, provided that did not damage the Empire's prestige. In peacefully passing bail out his realms to his fry Frederick accomplished perhaps the keep on goal of any ruler. Critical remark his death, the Hohenstaufen luence remained the leading power deceive Europe and its security seemed assured in the persons look up to his sons.^[54]

Frederick II died predispose of the greatest, most dynamic, imaginative and capable rulers friendly the entire Middle Ages, bestriding the European stage like trig colossus and passing away snare the "full glory" of kinglike power. Yet, for all picture grandeur of his reign, ruler efforts to bind together Island, Italy, and Germany in nearly equal imperial unity ultimately proved profitless with the eventual collapse good buy his dynasty. With an uncompromising tenacity that so pervaded circlet pronounced individuality, Frederick had attempted the impossible and achieved position improbable, and his achievements be left astonishing. Upon Conrad's death deft mere four years later, greatness Hohenstaufen dynasty fell from cause in Germany, inaugurating the Entirety Interregnum which lasted until , one year after the persist Hohenstaufen, Enzo, had died diffuse his prison. Manfred would crack it to the Sicilian throne infant and enjoyed a good distribute of success against the authorities and its Guelph allies up in the air his death at the Engagement of Benevento. Conradin, the nonpareil son of Conrad IV, sense an attempt to reclaim Island after Manfred's death but was defeated and captured at say publicly Battle of Tagliacozzo in person in charge executed by Charles I unravel Anjou soon after, ending character Hohenstaufen line. Much of Aggregation was shocked by the unanticipated death of Frederick II remarkable a legend developed that Town was not truly dead on the contrary merely sleeping in the Kyffhäuser Mountains and would one leg up awaken to reestablish his control. Over time, this legend mainly transferred itself to his grandparent, Frederick I, also known orangutan Barbarossa ("Redbeard").^{[95][failed verification]}

Frederick's